Amulets have held a significant place in Islamic culture as objects imbued with protective and spiritual power. Traditionally worn or carried, these amulets serve to ward off misfortune, the “evil eye” and other harmful influences, while also promoting healing, good fortune, and personal well-being. Their inscriptions often include Quranic verses, invocations to God, and symbolic motifs, reflecting a distinctive magical vocabulary formalized by the thirteenth century. This vocabulary combines religious texts with magical symbols, creating objects that are both devotional and apotropaic in nature.
This article focuses on exploring the regional characteristics of Islamic amulets, tracing their variations from medieval Spain through to the Ottoman Empire. By examining the materials, inscriptions, and symbolic motifs distinctive to these regions, we gain insight into the rich cultural and religious tapestry that shaped the production and use of amulets across the Islamic world.
Historical Context of Islamic Amulets – Taweez
Unlike pre-Islamic or other cultural magical practices that often addressed demonic forces or spirits of the dead, Islamic amulets, called taweez primarily appeal directly to God or His intercessors. This theological orientation is reflected in the inscriptions, which frequently include complete Quranic texts such as the Throne Verse (ayat-ul Kursi) or entire chapters like al-muʾawidhatan. Additionally, the “names of God” (al-asma al-husna) are among the most prevalent elements found on these objects, underscoring their devotional as well as protective nature.
The primary functions of these amulets are multifaceted: they serve to ward off misfortune and the “evil eye,” promote healing, and attract good fortune. For example, amulets often incorporate magic squares composed of the “mysterious letters of the Quran” or the “names of God” translated into numerals through the abjad alphabet system. This combination of textual and symbolic elements creates a powerful talismanic effect believed to satisfy a wide range of human needs. The Qurʾan itself has been described as “a vast reservoir that can be channeled to satisfy every human need” highlighting the central role of sacred scripture in the efficacy of these objects.
Materials used for taweez typically include durable substances such as metals and semi-precious stones like carnelian and chalcedony, which were valued not only for their physical properties but also for their attributed spiritual and medicinal qualities. For instance, carnelian was believed to confer divine favor and happiness, control fear in battle, and even aid in healing physical ailments such as hemorrhages and tooth decay. The choice of material thus complemented the inscribed texts and symbols, enhancing the amulet’s protective and curative powers.
Amulets in Medieval Spain
In medieval Spain, a distinctive type of amulet was commonly produced using lead as the primary material. These lead amulets were typically engraved with Kufic script, a simple and unembellished form of Arabic calligraphy that harkens back to early Islamic magical traditions. The use of Kufic script on these taweez reflects a deliberate choice, emphasizing the script’s perceived power and its longstanding association with talismanic objects.
These lead amulets-taweez were often folded and placed inside amulet holders, a practice that not only protected the inscribed text but also facilitated their portability and concealment. The folding of the amulet within a holder suggests a ritualized approach to their use, where the physical integrity and secrecy of the inscriptions were considered essential to maintaining their efficacy.
The choice of lead as a material is significant, as it was readily available and durable, yet inexpensive compared to precious metals. This practical selection indicates how local resources and traditions influenced the production of amulets in medieval Spain. The combination of lead and Kufic script thus embodies a regional adaptation of the broader Islamic magical vocabulary, tailored to the cultural and material context of the Iberian Peninsula during this period.
Ottoman Period Taweez: The Rise of Maskeh
During the late Ottoman period, a distinctive type of taweez known as the maskeh gained widespread popularity. These maskeh are thin gold amulets that bear a strong resemblance to coins in both size and form. Their production involved stamping with dies, often on one or both sides, which created detailed and precise inscriptions and designs. Some surviving examples of maskeh are pierced, indicating that they were intended to be sewn onto clothing, thereby integrating protective symbolism directly into the wearer’s attire.
The inscriptions on maskeh amulets commonly include invocations to God, expressions such as “as God wills,” and the “names of God”, which are central to Islamic devotional practice. Additionally, these amulets frequently feature the names of the Seven Sleepers and their dog—a legendary group of youths who, according to Islamic tradition, slept for centuries to escape persecution. Another prominent inscription found on maskeh is the hilya, a celebrated textual description of the Prophet Muhammad’s appearance and qualities, which holds significant spiritual and protective value.
What is particularly striking about the maskeh taweez of this period is the crossover of their designs into other talismanic contexts. The same motifs and inscriptions found on maskeh appear on talismanic shirts and in prayer books, demonstrating a shared visual and spiritual vocabulary within Ottoman material culture. This convergence highlights the multifaceted role of these taweez—not only as personal protective objects but also as part of a broader devotional and talismanic tradition that permeated various forms of religious and everyday life.
Challenges in Identifying Regional Origins
Determining the precise regional origin of many Islamic amulets presents a significant challenge for scholars due to the often generic nature of their inscriptions. Many amulets bear texts and symbols that are widely used across the Dar al-Islam, making it difficult to attribute them definitively to a specific geographic area.
In this context, the acquisition history of a taweez and particular features within its inscription become crucial for identification. For example, subtle textual variations, the presence of specific names, or unique iconographic elements can provide clues to an amulet’s provenance. Some taweez include clear references to Twelver Shiʿism, such as the invocation of the “Five Pure” ones—Muhammad, ʿAli, Fatima, Hasan, and Husayn—and the Twelve Imams, collectively known as the Fourteen Immaculate Ones. These inscriptions sometimes incorporate phrases like the Nadi ʿAliyan, an invocation to Imam ʿAli, or references to the Dhu’l Faqar sword, which hold particular significance within Shiʿi devotional practice.
Similarly, taweez with Sufi associations can be identified through inscriptions linked to specific orders. For instance, stamps from amulets have been documented that include hands inscribed with Qurʾanic verses, names of God, the Four Caliphs, and the Dhu’l Faqar text, alongside references to the Qadiri and Rifaʿi Sufi orders. These elements suggest a spiritual and protective function aligned with Sufi devotional traditions.
Material and Medium Variations Across Regions
Islamic taweez exhibit notable regional variations in the choice of materials and mediums, reflecting local traditions, available resources, and cultural preferences. As we already wrote – in medieval Spain, lead was a common material for amulets, often engraved with Kufic script and folded inside protective amulet holders.
In contrast, Iran saw a predominance of silver taweez during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Silver’s use in this region was not only a matter of availability but also carried symbolic and protective significance. For example, silver amulets in the form of body parts, known as nazar, were crafted for healing purposes and frequently sold near shrines to be placed on doors or grilles, thereby serving as both spiritual and physical safeguards.
The Ottoman Empire favored gold for its amulets-taweez. These gold pieces were stamped with dies and sometimes pierced for sewing onto clothing, combining precious material with intricate inscriptions and designs. The choice of gold not only reflected the empire’s wealth but also the elevated status and spiritual potency attributed to such amulets.
Beyond metals, semi-precious stones like carnelian and jade held special importance across the Islamic world due to their attributed protective and healing properties. Carnelian (aqiq) was especially revered, supported by a hadith of the Prophet Muhammad stating, “The one who wears a carnelian ring will always know divine favour and happiness.” Its properties were believed to include controlling fear in battle, stopping hemorrhages through its red color, and even removing tooth decay when rubbed against the teeth. Jade (yashm), popular among the Turks in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, was thought to avert the evil eye and mediate the after-effects of lightning, although some scholars like al-Biruni expressed skepticism about these claims.
Paper taweez also demonstrate significant variation in medium and inscription techniques. In Yemen’s Hadramawt region, sarf amulets—originally made from pebbles but later from paper—were painted with “dragon’s blood,” a red resin. This coating was believed to preserve the amulet’s efficacy, as the amulet would lose its power once the text became worn or faded. Such attention to the medium and ink highlights the importance of material integrity in maintaining the spiritual potency of amulets. Paper amulets elsewhere were either handwritten or block printed, sometimes stamped with seals, and often stored within protective cases made of silver or lead, depending on the region.
Cultural and Sectarian Influences on Taweez Design
Iranian amulets vividly reflect the interplay of cultural and sectarian influences, particularly those stemming from Shiʿi and Sufi traditions. In the past two centuries, two notable groups of taweez have emerged in Iran that embody these influences. One group consists of silver amulets shaped like body parts. The other group is made from sheet brass and combines figural representations with elements of the established “magical vocabulary” linking these objects to ancient Sabaean magic and early Islamic astrological practices.
Among the figural amulets, some are dedicated to love and feature representations of the famous lovers Yusuf and Zulayka, entwined figures, and symbolic motifs such as fish. These images are invariably surrounded by signs and symbols that enhance their talismanic power, illustrating how narrative and magical elements are intertwined in amulet design.
Thematic and Iconographic Motifs
A prominent motif is the “Seal of Prophecy” (muhr al-nubuwwa), which represents the physical mark on the Prophet Muhammad’s shoulder blades. This seal is frequently included in the text known as the hilya, a celebrated description of the Prophet’s appearance and qualities. Ottoman examples of the hilya appear both as amulets and on paper, often designed to be touched or rubbed by the reader to “activate” their protective and spiritual qualities. This tactile engagement underscores the intimate relationship between the user and the amulet’s power. Similarly, the “Sandal of the Prophet” (naʿn al-nabi) is another motif that is “activated” through touch, as evidenced by a 1433 hajj certificate where the owner sought the Prophet’s approval by rubbing the sandal’s image.
Conclusion
Islamic amulets-taweez represent a rich tapestry of diversity and regional specificity, reflecting the complex interplay between local culture, religious beliefs, and artistic expression. Across the Islamic world, amulets vary not only in material—from lead in medieval Spain to silver in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Iran, and gold in the Ottoman Empire—but also in their inscriptions and iconography, which often incorporate shared elements of the “magical vocabulary” alongside distinctive regional and sectarian features.